Thomas Xaver Schuhmacher

Abstract
The present article presents a review of a singular find of a copper pin together with Bell Beaker items in a cave in
Morocco. Although in the first publication of this piece Georges Souville already established a connection of the pin to the so called “Cypriot” knot-headed pins of Central Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean, this piece never found the
attention it deserved and never entered in the distribution maps of this type of pins. The recent publication of new
metal analysis of the pin and the accompanying Palmela point even led to a rejection of this identification and its chalcolithic dating and the assumption of a Early Iron Age/Phoenician chronology. Here we review again the whole context and the findings and their potential analogies. Finally the identification as a “Cypriot” knot-headed pin will be affirmed and the finding is seen as part of the Late Chalcolithic exchange of ivory and other prestige-goods between the Near East, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula.
Key-words: Knot-headed pin. Palmela point. Bell Beakers. Morocco. Iberian Peninsula. Exchange. Prestige-goods. Ivory.

"Summary. The present article examines the chronology of the various types of halberd in Europe with particular attention to those from the Iberian Peninsula. An older substrate of halberds is identified which originates in Ireland and Great Britain. From there the design of the Breaghwy type was distributed to the Continent, where the idea and the design were soon imitated
in the form of the Rouans, Carrapatas and Variant 6 Continental types. The success of the idea of the halberd is explained by its high prestige character."

By two comprehensive research projects, financed by the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG, Bonn) and located at the German Archaeological Institute (Madrid) we attempted to compile a new catalogue – as complete as possible – of all ivory objects from the Iberian Peninsula and north-western Africa dated from the beginning of the Chalcolithic at about 3000 BC until the end of the Early Bronze Age about 1650 BC. During these works, we recognised approximately 2000 ivory objects and analysed 150 objects by scientific methods, including measurement of the Schreger angle by optical microscopy, Fourier Transformed Infrared (FTIR)-Spectroscopy, elemental analysis and Isotopic Ratio Mass Spectrometry. The detailed study of the pieces and their contexts as well as the scientific analysis could give new dates on the chronological and geographical distribution, their social importance and the origin and exchange of the raw material. In this way, we recognised the existence of two different exchange networks during the Chalcolithic, by which on one hand Asian ivory reached the Southeast of the Iberian Peninsula and the Guadalquivir estuary and on the other hand African ivory from the Maghreb came to southwestern Spain and Portugal. In the Pre-Beaker as well as in the Bell Beaker Chalcolithic local elites maintained this exchange network in order to obtain exotic objects by a sort of peer-polity interaction to express their prestige and power.

Im Rahmen eines von der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft finanzierten und zwischen dem Deutschen Archäologischen Institut und der Gruppe INCENTIVS der Universität Mainz durchgeführten Projekts wurde zum einen versucht sämtliche Elfenbeinobjekte der Iberischen Halbinsel und des Maghreb zu registrieren und in den betreffenden Sammlungen in Augenschein zu nehmen, die sich in die Zeit vom Beginn des Chalkolithikums bis zum Ende der Frühen Bronzezeit (ca. 3000-1650 v. Chr.) datieren lassen. Die Zahl der Objekte konnte hierdurch gegenüber den bis dahin bekannten entscheidend erhöht und zum ersten Mal ein vollständiger Katalog vorgelegt werden.
Das detaillierte Studium dieser Gegenstände und ihrer Kontexte hat neue Daten zur ihrer chronologischen und geographischen Verteilung und ihrer sozialen Bedeutung geliefert. Neue Grabungen und das genaue Studium von Stücken und Kontexten haben nicht nur zur Identifizierung von Rohmaterialien und Halbfertigprodukten sondern auch von Werkstätten für die Elfenbeinverarbeitung geführt.
Erstmals konnte auch Elfenbein der Iberischen Halbinsel und des Maghreb durch INCENTIVS naturwissenschaftlich untersucht werden und das dahinter stehende Rohmaterial als sehr vielfältig bestimmt werden. So wurde unter anderem Elfenbein des afrikanischen und des asiatischen Elefanten nachgewiesen. Die Kombination dieser Ergebnisse mit archäologischen Methoden führte zu Hypothesen hinsichtlich der Herkunft des Elfenbeins, den Routen und der Art des Austauschs, seiner Weiterverteilung und Verarbeitung.

Schlüsselwörter: Elfenbein. Chalkolithikum. Frühbronzezeit. Iberische Halbinsel. Maghreb. Naturwissenschaftliche Anlaysen. Austausch. Prestigegüter.



On behalf of an interdisciplinary research project between the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) Madrid and the INCENTIVS group of the University of Mainz, financed by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Bonn, we tried to register all the ivory objects found on the Iberian Peninsula and in the Maghreb dated from the beginning of the Chalcolithic until the end of the Early Bronze Age (aprox. 3000-1650 AC). Thanks to this work we could increase drastically the number of known objects and publish for the first time a complete catalogue of these pieces.
The detailed study of the ivory objects and their context delivered new data about their chronological and geographical distribution and social importance. New excavations and the study of pieces and their contexts not only led to the identification of raw material and half-finished products, but also of real workshops for ivory.
For the first time INCENTIVS analyzed ivory from the Iberian Peninsula and was able to identify a big variety of different raw materials. Among this we could detect ivory from the African and the Asian elephnat. The combination of these results with archaeological methods led to new hypothesis about the provenience, the routes and modes of distribution and working of ivory.

Keywords: Ivory. Chalcolithic. Early Bronze Age. Iberian Peninsula. Maghreb. Scientific analysis. Exchange. Prestige-goods.


En el marco de un proyecto de investigación, financiado por la Fundación Alemana de Investigación Científica (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) y desarrolllado entre el Instituto Arqueológico Alemán y el grupo INCENTIVS de la Universidad de Mainz se registraron y se sometieron a una inspección ocular en los respectivos museos y colecciones a todos los objetos de marfil de la Península Ibérica y del Maghreb, datados entre el comienzo del Calcolítico y el final del Bronce Antiguo (aprox. 3000 -1650 AC). Mediante estos trabajos se incrementó el número de objetos de marfil en respecto a los hasta entonces concidos de manera espectacular y por primera vez fue posible publicar un catálogo completo de estas piezas.
El estudio detallado de estas piezas y de sus contextos suministró nuevos datos acerca de su cronología, distribución geográfica y importancia social. A esto hay que añadir los  datos aportados por nuevas excavaciones, lo que llevó a la identificación no sólo de materia prima y de productos semi-acabados sino también de talleres para la producción de objetos de marfil.
Además, por primera vez objetos de marfil de la Península Ibérica y del Maghreb fueron sometidos a análisis científicos por parte del grupo INCENTIVIS, identificando una amplia gama de materia prima de diferente orígen. Entre otros se documentó marfil del elefante asiatico y africano. La combinación de estos resultados con métodos arqueológicos llevó a nuevas hipótesis acerca del orígen del marfil, las rutas y los modos de su intercambio, su redsitribución y transformación.

Palabras clave: Marfil. Calcolítico. Bronce Antiguo. Península Ibérica. Maghreb. Análisis científico. Intercambio. Objetos de prestigio.

Die vom Marokkanischen Antikendienst INSAP in der Höhle Kehf el Baroud (Ziaïda, Ben Slimane, Marokko) durchgeführten Grabungen haben neben Elefantenknochen auch eine ganze Reihe von Gegenständen aus Elfenbein erbracht. Darunter befindet sich vor allem Rohmaterial aus der sog. `Aven Bleton´ neben wenigen fertigen Objekten. Im Rahmen eines von der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft und am Deutschen Archäologischen Institut angesiedelten Projekts wurden diese Stücke aufgenommen und am INCENTIVS- Forschungszentrum in Mainz analysiert.
Die optischen, spektroskopischen und Isotopenanalysen konnten klären, dass das Elfenbein von im 5. und 4. Jt. v. Chr. in der Umgebung der Höhle lebenden afrikanischen Steppenelefanten stammt. Ein Vergleich mit an Elfenbeinobjekten der Iberischen Halbinsel vorgenommenen Analysen, scheint zum ersten Mal naturwissenschaftliche Belege für einen in das 3. Jt. v. Chr. und die 1. Hälfte des 2. Jts. v. Chr. zu datierenden Import von nordwestafrikanischem Steppenelefantenelfenbein auf die Iberische Halbinsel zu liefern. Im Gegenzug scheinen besonders verzierte Keramikgefäße (bemalte Keramik und Glockenbecher) und Metallobjekte nach Nordwestafrika gelangt zu sein.

Las excavaciones efectuadas por el Servicio de Patrimonio marroquí (INSAP) en la cueva Khef el Baroud (Ziaïda, Ben Slimane, Marokko) han aportado aparte de huesos de elefante toda una serie de objetos de marfil. Entre este material, procedente de la `Aven Bleton´, se encuentran en primer lugar materia prima y sólo unos pocos objetos fabricados. En el margen de un proyecto financiado por la Deutsche Fosrchungsgemeinschaft (DFG) y asentado en el Instituto Arqueológico Alemán de Madrid inventariamos estas piezas y efectuamaos una serie de análisis en el centro INCENTIVS de Mainz (Alemania).
Estos análisis ópticos, espectroscópicos y de isótopos han constatado que el marfil procede de unos elefantes de estepa africanos que vivían en los alrededores de la cueva en el 5° y 4° milenio a. C. Una comparación con los resultados de los análisis efectuados sobre objetos de marfil de la Península Ibérica parecen confirmar por primera vez mediante datos ciemtíficos una importación de marfil norteafricano en el 3er y la primera mitad del 2° milenio a. C. En cambio llegaron vasijas de cerámica decoradas (cerámica pintada y campaniforme) y objetos de metal al Noroeste de África.

A recent review of all ivory from excavations in Chalcolithic and Beaker period Iberia shows a marked coastal distribution — which strongly suggests that the material is being brought in by sea. Using microscopy and spectroscopy, the authors were able to distinguish ivories from extinct Pleistocene elephants, Asian elephants and, mostly, from African elephants of the Savannah type. This all speaks of a lively ocean trade in the first half of the third millennium BC, between the Iberian Peninsula and the north-west of Africa and perhaps deeper still into the continent.

Keywords: Iberia, Portugal, Chalcolithic, Beaker period, Bronze Age, ivory, maritime, oceans, trade

Within the framework of an interdisciplinary research project of the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) in Madrid and
the INCENTIVS group of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz fi nanced by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
(DFG), we tried to register all ivory objects found on the Iberian Peninsula dating from the beginning of the Chalcolithic
to the end of the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3000-1650 B.C.). Hereby the number of the known objects could be drastically
increased, and for the fi rst time a complete catalogue of these pieces will be published.
The detailed study of these objects and their contexts delivered new data about their chronological and geographical
distribution as well as their social importance. It became clear that all of these variables experienced considerable
changes in the course of the 1,500 years considered here. Recent excavations and the detailed study of the pieces and
their contexts did not only lead to the identifi cation of raw materials and semi-fi nished products but also of workshops
for the processing of ivory.
Due to new natural scientifi c methods of analysis that were for the fi rst time applied to ivory from the Iberian Peninsula,
a great variety of the raw material could be identifi ed: ivory of the Asian elephant and the African savanna elephant, of
the Elephas antiquus, the hippopotamus, and of the sperm whale. Furthermore, the raw material composition is subject
to both chronological and geographical parameters. The combination of these results with archaeological methods
led to new hypotheses concerning the origin, the routes and the character of the exchange, and the distribution and
manufacture of ivory.
At the same time, however, it is clear that new questions arose and others remained unanswered so far. As a consequence,
we want to – in the framework of a new interdisciplinary project and by means of methods not yet applied
to prehistoric ivory (strontium isotope analysis) – particularly address the question of the exact geographical origin of
the ivory of the African savanna elephant and also of the process of its exchange.

La identificación y el inventariado de piezas de marfil directamente en las colecciones de los museos y el estudio
detallado de las piezas y sus contextos han suministrado nuevos datos acerca de la distribución cronológica y geográfica
de las mismas, así como de su importancia social. Mediante nuevas técnicas de análisis, como la espectroscopía infrarroja
por transformada Fourier (FTIR) y el análisis de isótopos estables de carbono y nitrógeno se ha podido aclarar que
la procedencia de los marfiles es amplia, experimentando variaciones a lo largo de la historia. La combinación de estos resultados con los métodos arqueológicos ha propiciado la elaboración de unas hipótesis acerca de la procedencia del marfil, las rutas y la forma de intercambio, así como sobre su redistribución y la fabricación de objetos de este material.
Palabras clave: marfil, procedencia, intercambio, Calcolítico, análisis físicos y químicos.
Summary:The identification and inventory of ivory objects directly in the collections of the museums as well as the thorough study
of the pieces and their contexts delivered new data concerning the chronological and geographical distribution of these pieces as
well as their social importance. By new methods of analysis like the Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and the analysis of stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen we could clarify that the provenance of the ivory is ample and changing through time. The combination of these results with archaeological methods led to a hypothesis of the provenance of the ivory, the routes and modes of exchange as well as its redistribution and the manufacturing of objects.

Ein von der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) gefördertes Projekt hatte die systematische Aufnahme aller Elfenbeinobjekte der Iberischen Halbinsel zum Ziel, die sich in die Zeit von ca. 3000 bis 1650 v. Chr. datieren lassen. Gleichzeitig wurden verschiedene naturwissenschaftliche Untersuchungsmethoden angewendet, um die Art des verwendeten Rohmaterials zu bestimmen. Hierbei konnte, unter anderem, für Objekte aus fünf Fundstellen des atlantischen Mittelportugals zum ersten Mal Pottwalelfenbein nachgewiesen werden. Die betreffenden Fundkomplexe gehören vorwiegend der Glockenbecherphase an. Im vorliegenden Beitrag werden diese Fundobjekte und ihre Kontexte vorgestellt, sowie die angewandten Untersuchungsmethoden und ihre Ergebnisse besprochen.

The aim of a research project, financed by the German Research Foundation (DFG), was a systematic compilation of all the ivory objects found on the Iberian Peninsula and dated between 3000 and 1650 A.C. At the same time different scientific methods were employed to determine the raw material used. Besides other results, it could be confirmed for the first time that several objects out of five sites from Atlantic Central Portugal had been made of sperm whale ivory. The contexts of the objects in question belong primarily to the Bell Beaker phase. In the present article we present these objects and their contexts and discuss the scientific methods employed and the results.

During excavations in the huge ditched enclosure of Valencina de la Concepción (Seville, Spain), the main centre from the first hierarchical framework-settlement in the Guadalquivir Valley, a pit with remains of a context for producing ivory artefacts, dating from the first half of the 3rd millennium BC, was discovered in the large metallurgical nucleate workshops. Scientific (Optical Microscopy, FIRT and Raman Spectroscopy, C/N Isotope Ratio Mass pectrometry) analyses revealed that the ivory belonged to Asian
elephants and the archaeological study, which was made in a specialized workshop context. In this paper we present the archaeological context, the study of the ivory artefacts and the state of research on ivory in the Lower Guadalquivir Basin during the 3rd millennium BC. In a parallel way, this paper discusses the
significance of this workshop context in the configuration and function of the long distance circulation of raw material and the specialized craft areas in the first political centres.

Fluorine was determined by particle induced gamma-ray emission (PIGE) technique with 2.3 MeV protons in elephant, mammoth, aquatic (walrus, pot whale, narwhal, hippopotamus) and archaeological ivory, with concentration varying between 55 ppm and 2.3 %. The characteristic variation of F concentration with species shows that it has the potential to serve as a marker in identifying different types of ivory. Additionally, Na concentration was also reported in all the analysed samples.

The last inventory of ivory objects having been presented by K. Spindler in 1981, a DAI-project financed by the DFG (Bonn, Germany) has now prepared a new, complete inventory of ivory pieces, examining each object on place throughout collections. In fact, ivory is present from the late Neolithic or, respectively, the early Chalcolithic on, the amount of known pieces having increased considerably. Furthermore, ten objects from Portugal were analysed at Mainz University (Germany) using FTIR spectroscopy. It seems that Portugal imported mainly ivory of the African savannah elephant, probably from north-west Africa. Such contacts would seem to have continued through the Bell Beaker Chalcolithic, judging from the presence of Bell Beaker objects in north-west Africa, even though our analysis could establish only examples of sperm whale ivory.

O marfim constitui um material introduzido, uma novidade, observada na Estremadura Portuguesa no início do Calcolítico, cerca 3000/2900 a.C. Tratando-se de uma matéria-prima exótica, foi, desde os inícios da investigação arqueológica, objecto de particular interesse, considerando-se desde logo reflexo dos contactos comerciais estabelecidos por via marítima com regiões extra-peninsulares. S. P. M. Estácio da Veiga (1886, 1891), já falava a favor de uma importação de objectos acabados e da própria matéria-prima, em bruto, a partir do Norte de África. L. Siret (1913) estabeleceu, depois, diferenças entre artefactos feitos a partir de dentes de elefante e de hipopótamo. Ambos os grupos de peças foram por ele considerados como oriundos do Egipto. J. C. Serra Ráfols (1925), ao contrário, chamou a atenção para a ausência de critérios seguros que, segundo ele, poderiam ser invocados a favor de uma origem egípcia, devendo antes considerar-se o Noroeste Africano como origem de tais produções....